Korea: The Mobile War 1950-51
Korea: The Mobile War, 1950-51 Rulebook
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
Korea is composed of three games:
A. The Standard Scenarios, depicting the situation at particularly crucial times: the Invasion Scenario of the original attack against the South Koreans; the Intervention Scenario of the Chinese intervention; and the Stalemate Scenario of the grinding back of the Communist line by the UN to the 38th parallel.
B. The Campaign Game: combining the three scenarios above, filling in the gaps so that the entire campaign may be played out in sequence.
C. The Variant Situations, in which various what-if historical effects are examined in their impact on the above games.
D. Players are cautioned not to judge that, because a scenario is longer, or is modified by historical variations, this makes a better or more realistic game; each game stands separately on its own merits, and is self-complete. The same standard rules of play apply to all of the scenarios.
1.1 Glossary
1.1.1 Enemy
All units of the other side.
1.1.2 Friendly
All units of the same side are friendly to one another.
1.1.3 Phasing Player/Side
The player/side whose player-turn it is.
1.2 Abbreviations
| Abbr | Meaning | Abbr | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Amph | Amphibious Naval Unit | NG | Naval Gun Unit |
| CRT | Combat Results Table | OOS | Out of Supply |
| EZOC | Enemy Zone of Control | TEC | Terrain Effects Chart |
| MA | Movement Allowance | TRC | Turn Record Chart |
| MST | Military Sea Transport | ZOC | Zone of Control |
2.0 Game Equipment
2.1 The Game Map
A. The 23" by 29" map-sheet portrays the Asian peninsula of Korea, in which the operations with which we are dealing took place. A hexagonal grid (hexes) is superimposed upon the map to regularize the movement and position of the playing pieces.
B. The map also includes the different Combat Results Tables.
2.2 The Playing Pieces
Examine the sheet of colored die-cut playing pieces (or units) supplied with the game. They represent the opposing armies that fought the Korean War. The Communist and United Nation Forces shown as on the Initial Order of Battle Maps and on the Reinforcement Charts, are selected from these units. It is highly recommended to sort units by type and color immediately after removing them from the sheet, and to keep them segregated, as this greatly facilitates subsequent setting-up and playing of the game. The playing pieces are distinguished by type, strength, nationality, and mobility, as represented by the various numbers and symbols on the units' faces.
2.2.1 Sample Unit
The sample unit face shows, from top to bottom: the unit size (above the unit symbol); the unit type (at left of the unit symbol); the designation (at right of the unit symbol); the combat strength (lower left); and the movement allowance (lower right).
2.2.2 Unit Types
The unit types are: Infantry; Armor; Armored Infantry; Supply Unit; Paratroop; Marines; Naval Gun; Amphibious Landing Craft; Military Sea Transport; and Entrenchment Marker.
2.2.3 Unit Sizes
| Symbol | Size | Symbol | Size |
|---|---|---|---|
| III | Regiment | XX | Division |
| X | Brigade | XXXX | Army |
2.2.4 Unit Nationalities
| Color | Nationality |
|---|---|
| Gold | Chinese People's Army |
| Brown | North Korean People's Army (N) |
| Green | UN |
UN units which are not otherwise marked are American units; others are designated as follows:
| Designation | Nationality | Designation | Nationality |
|---|---|---|---|
| S | South Korea | B | Britain |
| T | Turkey | P | Philippines |
2.2.5 Unit Designations
Unit designations exist only for historical flavor, although they are actual unit designations of the units in the original campaign. The only case where this designation affects play is that of the 187th Airborne Regiment (11.0); the other designations do not affect play.
2.3 Game Charts and Tables
Various visual aids are provided for the player to simplify and illustrate certain game functions.
A. The Combat Results Tables (CRTs) are presented on the map itself and will be explained under Combat Phase (10.0).
B. The Initial Order of Battle Maps show the initial set-up of units at the start of each of the three basic situations; the Turn Record Chart (TRC) indicates new units' arrival, the replacements available, and the current turn. This chart is fully explained where presented.
C. The Terrain Effects Chart (TEC) details the effect of terrain on combat and movement, and is fully explained where presented.
2.4 Rules Questions
A. If you have any questions about the rules, we answer such questions in our newsletter, GAME DESIGN.
B. Address such questions to:
GAME DESIGN Simulations 34 E. 23rd St. New York, NY 10010
C. GAME DESIGN is published six times yearly and is available for three dollars a year.
3.0 General Course of Play
A. Korea is basically a two-player game. Each side moves its units and executes attacks in turn, with the objectives being to destroy enemy units and gain territory, while minimizing friendly combat losses. Combat is resolved by comparing Combat Strengths of adjacent opposing units, and expressing the comparison as a simplified probability ratio (odds).
B. After the defender has selected the CRT to be used, a die is rolled, and the outcome, indicated by cross-referencing the roll with the odds column, is applied to the unit being attacked.
C. Korea is played in turns. Each turn is composed of two player-turns. Each player turn is composed of three phases.
D. A typical turn proceeds as follows:
3.1 First Player Turn
Each of the three basic games detail which player goes first.
3.1.1 First Movement Phase
The phasing side may move some, any, or all of its units in any direction, up to their full Movement Allowance (MA), with restrictions as outlined in the Movement and Zone of Control (ZOC) rules, and the TEC.
3.1.2 Combat Phase
The phasing side may attack any adjacent enemy units as desired.
3.1.3 Second Movement Phase
A. The phasing side may move some, any, or all of its units in the same manner and with the same restrictions as in the First Movement Phase. This movement is in addition to that allowed in the First Movement Phase.
B. No Combat Phase occurs after this Movement Phase.
3.2 Second Player Turn
The second player executes the same phases as the first player just did, using its units.
3.3 Game Turn Phase
[Source gap: the opening sentence of this section is missing from the printed document. The text as printed begins below.]
indicate the passage of one turn on the TRC by moving a marker to the next turn. Each complete turn represents one week of real time.
4.0 Game Length
Each of the three basic games lasts a varying number of turns. At the end of the second player's Second Movement Phase of the last turn, the positions of both sides' units are evaluated to determine the winner.
5.0 Movement
A. During the Movement Phases, the phasing side may move as many or as few of its units as desired.
B. Each unit may be moved as many hexes as desired within the limits of its MA, the TEC, and the ZOC rules.
C. Move each unit individually, tracing the path of its movement through the hexagonal grid.
5.1 In General
A. Movement is calculated in terms of hexes. Basically, each unit expends one Movement Point (MP) of its total MA per hex entered. Some types of hexes require more or fewer MPs to enter. See the movement section of the TEC for a full list of the different costs.
B. Movement is never required; it is always voluntary.
C. Units are moved individually, or in stacks of two, at the owner's discretion, in any direction, or combination of directions.
D. A unit may be moved as few or as many hexes as desired, as long as the unit's MA is not exceeded.
E. Friendly units may pass through other friendly units at any time they wish, without penalty.
F. Stopping on another friendly unit costs an additional MP above and beyond the normal cost to enter that hex (7.1).
G. Units may move over different types of terrain in the same Movement Phase, as long as they have enough MPs to enter each hex.
5.2 Restrictions
A. Units may never enter or pass through a hex containing enemy units.
B. Unused MPs are not accumulated from turn to turn, nor may they be transferred to another unit.
C. No enemy movement is permitted during the phasing side's Movement Phase.
D. No combat of any kind may take place during a Movement Phase.
5.3 Non-Korean Road Movement
Non-Korean United Nations units moving exclusively on roads may move at twice their normal MA. Ordinarily a United Nations unit could move six hexes during a single Movement Phase. Using this rule, they may move 12 hexes along a road.
5.4 Rail Movement
Certain units may travel by rail, i.e., move along railroad lines at a rate greater than their normal MA. All units moving by rail must begin and end their Movement Phase on the rail line and may not leave the rail line at any point in the course of their rail movement.
5.4.1 UN Units
A. All UN units, except supply units, may move by rail.
B. UN units have a rail movement rate equal to six times their normal MA (i.e., 18 rail hexes).
5.4.2 Communist Units
Only Communist supply units may move by rail; no other types of Communist units may use rail movement. Communist supply units have a rail movement rate equal to six times their normal MA (i.e., six rail hexes).
5.4.3 Special Communist Rail Movement
When moving by rail during the first four turns of the Invasion Game, Communist supply units may move at a rail movement rate equal to 12 times their normal MA when travelling on rail lines north of the 38th Parallel.
5.5 Supply Unit Movement
Supply units are treated somewhat differently regarding movement:
5.5.1 UN Supply Units
A. UN supply units have a basic MA of 1 MP per Movement Phase when moving in clear terrain.
B. When moving into a rough terrain hex, they have an MA of 1 MP per player-turn. UN Supply units may move into a rough terrain hex only during their Second Movement Phase, and only if they have not moved at all during the First Movement Phase of that player-turn.
5.5.2 Communist Supply Units
Communist supply units expend ½ MP when entering a clear terrain hex. They expend 1 MP when entering a rough terrain hex, and may enter such hexes in either or both Movement Phases.
5.6 One Hex Minimum
Except for UN supply units during the First Movement Phase in rough terrain, all units may move at least one hex, even if the ordinary cost of moving would preclude this.
5.7 Out of Supply Effects
A. Any unit out of supply has its MA halved, with any fractions rounded down.
B. Out of supply units may use road movement rates but may not use Rail Movement rates.
C. For movement purposes, whether or not a unit is in supply depends on the unit's state of supply at the beginning of the Movement Phase. Moving into or out of supply does not affect the unit's supply state for the remainder of that Movement Phase.
5.8 Armor and Armored Infantry in Rough Terrain
Armor and armored infantry may not move into or through rough terrain hexes except on road hexes.
5.9 Intervention Game Special Rules
Some of the Movement Rules are suspended for a number of turns at the beginning of the Intervention Game.
6.0 Bridges
A. A bridge exists wherever a road or railroad crosses a river.
B. However, when a unit defends on a bridge hex, and is either eliminated or retreats per the Pursuit Table, that hex is treated as a river hex in all aspects, until a friendly unit moves across this hex; restoring the road and/or the railroad.
7.0 Stacking and Unit Breakdown
A. Units may stack two high, and may also move in stacks of two.
B. They may only stack higher while forming larger units, breaking down into smaller units, or when forced to retreat due to CRT results (Pursuit).
C. Stacking limitations apply at all times, except for specific instances.
7.1 Stacking Costs
A. It costs one additional MP to end a unit's Movement Phase stacked with a unit that it did not move with during that phase.
B. It costs two MPs to end a phase stacked with two such units, and so on.
7.2 Effects
All units stacked together may attack out of defend in, the hex they occupy.
7.3 Breakdown
Units break down in the following fashion:
| UN Parent | UN Children | Communist Parent | Communist Children |
|---|---|---|---|
| 16-3 | 3 x 5-3 | 10-4 | 3 x 3-4 |
| 20-3 | 3 x 6-3 | 25-2 (Chinese only) | 3 x 10-4 |
| 10-3 | 3 x 3-3 | 9-8 | 3 x 3-8 |
7.3.1 Procedure
A. Units may be broken down or recombined at the beginning of the Movement Phase before any movement occurs. Units may never break down at the end of a Movement Phase as this would violate stacking rules.
B. Units may be recombined at the end of a Movement Phase, after all movement has ceased. Units must be stacked together to be recombined, and pay movement penalties in addition to terrain costs (7.1).
C. To break down or recombine unit(s), simply remove the unit(s) to be replaced, and place the replacement unit(s) in the same hex.
7.3.2 Communist Units
Communist units (except Chinese 25-2 units) may never be broken down voluntarily. Such units may only break down when taking losses in combat.
8.0 Zones of Control
8.1 In General
A. The six hexes immediately surrounding a given unit (or stack of units) constitute that unit's Zone of Control (ZOC). These are fluid semi-active ZOCs, which have an inhibiting effect upon enemy movement, but do not entirely prohibit it.
B. Hexes upon which a unit is exerting its ZOC are called controlled hexes.
C. ZOCs have no effect upon combat.
D. All units' ZOCs are identical; they inhibit the movement and, in some cases, the supply of enemy units only.
8.2 Effects
A. All units must expend +1 MP when leaving an enemy ZOC (EZOC).
B. There is no additional cost to enter a ZOC.
C. There are no additional effects if more than one enemy unit exerts a ZOC in a given hex.
D. The cost of leaving an enemy-controlled hex is in addition to any other terrain costs; thus it would cost 3 MPs to leave an EZOC and enter a rough terrain hex.
E. A unit's ZOC interrupts enemy supply lines; however, for supply purposes only, ZOCs do not extend into enemy-occupied hexes for tracing a supply line. Thus one may trace a supply line through an enemy controlled hex if friendly unit(s) occupy such a hex.
F. ZOCs do not extend into completely rough terrain hexes. These are defined as any hex totally covered by rough terrain. ZOCs do extend in if any part of the hex is clear terrain, not necessarily the hexside facing the hex occupied by the unit exerting the ZOC.
G. ZOCs do not affect naval units.
9.0 Supply
9.1 In General
A. Units derive supply from supply units.
B. UN units also derive supply from the city of Pusan.
C. Units not considered in supply are penalized in movement and combat.
D. Any number of units may be supplied from one supply unit or Amphibious Landing Craft, for combat and movement purposes.
9.2 When Determined
A. A unit's supply status for movement is determined at the beginning of its Movement Phase.
B. A unit's supply status for combat is determined at the instant of combat.
9.3 Communist Supply
A. All Communist units draw supply from supply units.
B. Communist units are considered in supply if they are within two hexes of a supply unit, regardless of terrain. Thus, there may be only one intervening hex between the supplied unit and the supply unit.
C. A supply line is blocked if an EZOC intervenes.
D. Communist supply units remain on the map after supplying movement and defensive combat; however, when used to supply offensive combat, remove the supply unit at the end of the Combat Phase.
E. (Optional) North Korean supply can be traced from supply units or by rail to Pyongyang. The unit must be within two hexes of a rail line leading to Pyongyang to trace supply in that manner. After the Chinese intervention, North Korean units may trace supply only to supply units.
9.4 UN Supply
A. All UN units draw supply from Pusan or supply units.
B. UN units are in supply if they are within 16 MPs of a supply unit. This supply line may be traced over any terrain, and the MPs are computed just as if an actual unit were being moved.
C. A supply line may not be traced through an EZOC unless a friendly unit is in that hex.
D. UN supply units may not be used as a source of supply if they themselves are not able to trace a line clear of ZOCs to Pusan, no matter how long or circuitous. If a supply unit is eliminated through enemy attack, it automatically returns to play on the sixth turn following its turn of elimination. This does not affect the UN Replacement rate.
9.5 Out of Supply Effects
A. Units which are out of supply (OOS) have their MA and Combat Strength halved. In all cases of halving, drop any fractions before multiplying, such as for defensive combat.
B. Supply units are never considered to be OOS. Exception: UN supply units unable to trace a supply line to Pusan (9.4.D).
C. Units may remain OOS indefinitely; they are never eliminated solely due to being OOS.
D. Units that are OOS:
- May use road movement.
- May not form entrenched positions or benefit from an Entrenched counter; however, they may use the Position Defense Table when it is available on the basis of terrain.
- May not use rail movement.
E. Unsupplied, non-Korean UN units may not use the special road movement rate. They only double (not quadruple) their rate on roads.
F. Units may move out of supply if they wish. Doing so has no effect on their movement unless they were OOS at the beginning of the Movement Phase.
G. The effect of supply on combat is instantaneous: if a unit, and the supply unit that it is deriving supply from, are attacked in the same Combat Phase, and the supply unit is eliminated first, the unit is immediately considered to be OOS in its subsequent defense unless it has an alternative source of supply.
9.6 Amphibious Landing Craft as Supply Source
The Amphibious Landing Craft unit may be used as a source of supply. Simply move it to any partial land (coastal) hex and treat it as a supply unit, except that it may still act as a naval unit, and it does not need to trace a clear line back to Pusan.
9.7 UN Air Supply
A. UN units may be supplied by air indefinitely.
B. Up to two divisions (six regiments) may be supplied by air per turn.
C. The allocation of this supply takes place at the beginning of the friendly player-turn and the effects last until the end of the next enemy player-turn. The UN side must specify to the Communist side the units being supplied by air.
9.8 Invasion and Intervention Scenarios
Supply rules are modified somewhat in the first few turns of the Invasion and Intervention Scenarios.
10.0 Combat
Combat occurs between adjacent opposing units at the discretion of the phasing side. The phasing side is considered to be the attacker, while the non-phasing side is considered the defender, regardless of the overall strategic position of the two sides.
10.1 Procedure
A. Sum the combat strengths of the attacking units and compare it to the total combat strengths of the defending unit(s) in the hex under attack.
B. State the comparison as a ratio: attacker's strength to defender's strength. Round down the ratio to the nearest whole number to yield one of the simplified odds found on the CRTs.
Example: An attacker with a 26 Attack Strength against a defender with a 9 defense strength would round down to a 2:1 odds situation.
C. Roll the die and read the result under the appropriate column for that die result.
D. Apply the result of the combat immediately before going on to resolve any other combat.
10.2 Eligible Units
A. The phasing side may only attack enemy units to which friendly units are adjacent.
B. Only those friendly units directly adjacent to a given enemy unit may participate in the attack upon that enemy unit.
C. Units adjacent to enemy units are not compelled to attack, nor does the attacker have to utilize every adjacent unit if he does decide to attack. Attacking is completely voluntary.
D. An enemy-occupied hex may be attacked by as many attacking units as can be brought to bear.
E. If one unit in a stack is used in an attack, the other unit in the stack need not participate in the same attack nor in any attack at all during that Combat Phase.
10.3 Restrictions
A. No unit may attack more than once per Combat Phase.
B. No enemy unit may be attacked more than once per Combat Phase.
C. No more than one enemy-occupied hex may be attacked by a given attacking unit (or group of attacking units). Thus, each combat must involve only a single enemy-occupied hex.
D. Defending units stacked in the same hex must be attacked as a single combined combat strength. Thus, one may not individually attack individual units which are stacked together.
10.4 Entrenchments
A. When a unit (or stack) spends one Movement Phase stationary in a hex and not adjacent to an enemy unit, the phasing side may place an Entrenched counter on top of such units if they are in supply. This enables the Defender to use the Position Defense CRT for supplied defenders.
B. Removal of the counter requires the unit under the Entrenchment counter to spend one Movement Phase without moving.
C. The Entrenchment counter is automatically removed if the unit under it is destroyed in combat.
10.5 Selecting a Combat Results Table
A. There are three CRTs: Meeting Engagement, Position Defense, and Pursuit. The defender chooses the specific CRT after the attacker has announced an attack upon a hex and the odds have been determined.
B. The defender may use the Meeting Engagement and Pursuit CRTs as desired in a single Combat Phase, and the Position Defense Table when applicable (10.8). Use of a specific CRT in a Combat Phase does not preclude the use of any other and does not require that it be used again.
10.6 Combat Results
All Tables express their results in the following fashion:
| Result | Explanation |
|---|---|
| DX | Defender eliminated. |
| D1, D2, D3 | Defender loses that number of regiments. |
| E1, E2 | Exchange: Both sides lose that number of regiments from participating forces. |
| A1, A2, A3 | Attacker loses that number of regiments. |
| AX | Attacker eliminated. |
10.7 Applying Combat Losses
A. If a side is eliminated, remove all of its units that participated in that combat.
B. When a side takes losses, its units may be broken to remove the exact losses. Chinese Armies lose divisions (10-4) instead of regiments, if there are no other units to lose regiments from.
C. A side may temporarily exceed the stacking limit when breaking down units to take losses, thus exceeding two units per hex.
10.8 Position Defense CRT
The Position Defense CRT provides the best results for the defender. It may only be chosen then the defender occupies a town hex, is on a river hex that is not adjacent to the attacker occupying the same river, or when supplied and under an Entrenchment counter.
10.9 Meeting Engagement and Pursuit CRTs
A. The Meeting Engagement and Pursuit CRTs are always available to the defender. The main difference is that the Meeting Engagement CRT exacts higher losses, but prevents retreat, while the Pursuit CRT permits smaller losses in some cases, but indicates retreat.
B. When using the Pursuit CRT, no matter what the outcome, the defender must always retreat at least one hex.
10.10 Communist Losses vs Non-Korean Troops
A. Communist units attacking or defending against non-Korean UN units, suffer losses twice as much as those shown on the CRT.
Example: In an E2 result where the UN unit would lose two regiments, the Communists would lose four regiments.
B. This does not apply when losses are taken, in part or whole, in divisions from armies.
Example: If an army (25-2) and two regiments attacked with a result of E2, one loss would be doubled (eliminating the two divisions) but the other loss would not be doubled, resulting in only one division eliminated.
C. This rule applies if any attacking or defending unit is a non-Korean UN unit.
10.11 Invasion Scenario
Certain rules are suspended or added for the first three turns of the Intervention Scenario.
[Printed as is: the heading reads "Invasion Scenario" but the text refers to the Intervention Scenario.]
11.0 Parachute Troops
A. The UN forces had one parachute unit (US 187th Airborne regiment). This unit becomes available on the 11th UN player-turn of the Invasion Scenario.
B. It may be paradropped simply by picking it up and placing it anywhere on the map, except for hexes that are completely rough terrain.
C. In the turn of paradrop, air supply capacity is reduced to one division.
D. The unit is subject to the normal supply, combat, and elimination requirements.
E. After returning to the UN front lines (i.e., being restored to ground supply) it may be dropped again after having spent two complete turns out of EZOCs.
F. It may be dropped any number of times within the above requirements.
G. After this unit is lost in combat for the first time, it loses this airdrop capability, although it may be taken as an ordinary replacement.
12.0 Replacements
A. On the map are three boxes in the sea used for storing units eliminated in combat and which may be returned to play by using replacements as given on the TRC. More detailed instructions are given on that chart.
B. Place North Korean units eliminated in combat in the Replacement Box when eliminated in combat unless they are and unable to trace a path free of EZOCs, no matter how long or circuitous, to Pyongyang or Antung.
C. South Korean and UN units, similarly go into their Replacement Box, unless they are unable to trace a path free of EZOCs to Pusan or an amphibious naval unit in a coastal hex, no matter how long or circuitous.
D. Chinese forces never receive replacements.
13.0 Naval Units
A. There are three types of naval units available exclusively to the UN forces: Naval Gun units (NG), Military Sea Transport (MST) units, and Amphibious Landing Craft units (Amph).
B. MSTs and the Amph may be used to transport troops, NGs may be used to support combat, and the Amph may be used as a source of supply (9.6).
13.1 Sea Movement
A. Sea movement proceeds similarly to land movement, with two Movement Phases. The full MA may be used in each.
B. The basic cost of moving one sea hex is 1 MP.
C. Naval units may move only through all-sea hexsides.
D. It costs MSTs and the Amph additional MPs to load or unload troops. Refer to the Sea Movement Allowance chart for sea MAs and costs.
E. When moving from one side of the peninsula to the other in passing the land at the bottom of the map, all naval units pay 8 MPs, as indicated by the arrows.
13.1.1 Procedure
A. Naval units must be stacked with the unit to be embarked at the beginning of the Movement Phase in which it is to be loaded.
B. Units which are unloaded may not move during the player-turn they are unloaded.
C. MSTs and Amph units may each carry one division (three regiments).
D. Only one division may be loaded or unloaded from a port per Movement Phase.
E. UN supply units may never be embarked.
13.1.2 MST Units
A. MSTs may only be used to carry units from one friendly port to another.
B. A friendly port is one occupied by friendly units or which was last occupied by friendly units.
C. Units may not be loaded or unloaded in EZOCs.
13.1.3 Amph Units
A. Amph units only may assault nonfriendly ports. To do so, move to the port to be assaulted in exactly the same manner as if it were an ordinary transport of troops. If the port is occupied, the units in the Amph unit attack the unit in the port under normal combat rules on the Position Defense CRT.
B. If the defender is completely eliminated, the Amph and troops may move into the port on the following Movement Phase.
C. If the Defender is not eliminated, the Amph and any surviving attacking units must return to the embarking port as soon as possible, and the troops must be unloaded.
D. The port of Inchon may be assaulted only on Turns 13, 14, and 17 of the Invasion Scenario.
13.2 Effect of Enemy Land Units on Naval Movement and Vice-Versa
Naval units and enemy land units do not affect one another, and they may pass through one another, or even be stacked with one another.
Exception: When an Amph unit is acting as a supply unit, or an Amph or MST are in a port, and an enemy unit enters that hex, the naval unit must immediately put to sea in its next Movement Phase.
13.3 Naval Gun Units
Naval Gun units (NGs) are moved in the same manner as other naval units; they may support UN attacks or defenses with a Combat Strength of 6 by being up to two hexes from the defender in each case.
14.0 Designer's Notes
The political background of the Korean War is probably the sorriest aspect of the entire action. Up until 1904, Korea had been an independent nation (although battles against intruding Chinese and Japanese were frequent). Japan "took over" Korea in the name of "self-defense" (even today, history repeats itself). The subsequent occupation varied in brutality somewhere between the European occupation of South Africa and the English occupation of Ireland. There was no love lost between the Koreans and the Japanese.
In 1945 the Japanese were finally driven out, by the Russians in the north and by the Americans in the south. The Russians brought with them a large numbers of Korean patriots whom they had supported during the 40 year Korean struggle against Japanese domination. Many of these Koreans had fought for the Russians and Chinese against the Germans and the Japanese. And now they had their reward, or at least half of it. The North Koreans were, for the most part, communist in their politics. This didn't bother them. The "free" nations of the world had never lifted a finger to secure their independence, the Russians and Chinese Communists had. This fact did, however, bother the United States. The US government insisted in setting up a "friendly" state in "south" Korea. (The 38th parallel had been used to divide the nation simply because it was a convenient symbol on maps.) Unfortunately, there were few good Korean leaders in the south who had not collaborated with the Japanese (a serious offense in the eyes of most Koreans). The southern government was weak and corrupt and hardly "free." There was guerilla warfare being waged below the 38th parallel. The North Korean government was strong and free of corruption. Many experienced soldiers were available and the Russians provided arms in abundance. So it came to pass that the Northern Koreans would liberate their southern brothers from the "US imposed government." The last US units left Korea in early 1950. On June 25, 1950 the North Korea People's Army advanced in to southern Korea.
The ROK (Republic of Korea - South Korea) army contained only 64,000 men organized in to eight divisions. Because of poor weapons and training, this force probably equaled no more than 14 regiments. (The eight divisions were 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and Capitol.) Many of these were far to the south fighting guerillas. The NKPA contained ten divisions: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 15 at full strength, and 10 and 13 at about 70% strength. In addition, there were three motorized units, the 105th Tank Brigade (designated a division in early July) and two recon regiments (12 and 17). There was one separate regiment (766) and five border constabulary brigades (1, 2, 3, 5, and 7), for a total of some 120,000 men, all well trained and armed. The ROK army fought hard, but they were completely outclassed. In the first month of fighting the ROK lost over 70,000 men, the NKPA over 58,000.
In early July, American units entered the fighting. They were from the understrength (and under-armed and trained) occupation forces in Japan. They lost 6,000 men the first month and established a perimeter around the major port of Pusan. By early August, there were some 40,000 UN (US and allied) troops and 80,000 ROK troops facing some 70,000 NKPA troops. The ROK units were often little more than armed mobs. The US units were still learning the ropes. But for the NKPA, it was the end. The UN command was gathering its amphibious forces and more reinforcements for an attack into the NKPA rear. This attack at lnchon finished the NKPA and the UN forces surged north.
Deep into North Korea, the UN forces met another surprise, the CCF (Chinese Communist Forces). The CCF had just finished a civil war against a US supported faction. The Chinese did not want US forces on the other side of the Yalu river. They told the world that if US forces crossed the 38th parallel they would enter North Korea and drive them out. US commanders didn't believe the CCF would come. They didn't know about the CCF. The CCF was probably the finest "infantry" army the world had ever seen, and in rugged terrain like Korea an infantry force held the upper hand. Moving in small groups and using infiltration tactics at peak efficiency, the CCF overran the motorized UN forces. Advancing faster than the German "panzers" of World War II, the CCF were not stopped until south of the 38th. But now the UN forces had the upper hand. In the wide expanses of Manchuria, the UN forces would have been surrounded and destroyed. But in narrow Korea they were able to establish a line and conduct a "mobile" defense using their more massive artillery to hold the Chinese back. But the CCF could not be driven back far, for they knew how to dig, and dig. They constructed a trench system 20 miles deep in places (four times the depth of the largest German defenses of World War I and over some of the roughest terrain in the world). When this happened, in July of 1951, the Korean "war" was over.
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war proved little, except to reveal the potential of the Chinese army and to reaffirm some of the lessons on World Wars One and Two, such as:
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Well dug in troops, defending in depth, cannot be dislodged except by a human bloodbath, with the attacker taking most of the punishment. In rough terrain such as Korea the defender has even more of an advantage.
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Control of the air and adequate bomber forces will not guarantee the ability to sever enemy railroad lines. Railroads are easier to repair than roads. A 36-division CCF army can be supplied by as little as one train of 50 cars a day.
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Superiority in artillery is more useful in the defense than the offense and that you soon reach a "point of diminishing returns" with artillery. During 1952, UN forces were expending over 100 artillery shells per CCF casualty. CCF forces, firing only 5-10% as many shells caused one UN casualty per 12 shells fired. This was in defensive situations, neither side attacking. CCF forces were suffering twice as many casualties. When the CCF was attacking, it took only about 30 shells per CCF casualty. The CCF was then losing slightly more men (2.5:1).
But those who lost the most were not the soldiers, but the Korean people. Over 80% of the war's casualties were civilians (compared to 5% for World War I, over 40% for World War II, and over 90% for the Viet Nam War). Hundreds of thousands of Koreans died. It wasn't worth it.